In his biographical note to Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, Jane Austen’s brother reflected that his sister was “fond of dancing and excelled at it” (Tomalin 104). However, despite her enthusiasm for ballrooms and reels, Austen was equally aware of the complications that accompanied them. Austen’s earliest surviving letter, written when she was 20, is an overview of a ball that she had recently attended. After listing the gentlemen with whom she happily danced, Austen notes, “to my inexpressible astonishment, I entirely escaped John Lyford. I was forced to fight hard for it, however” (Stovel 9). Austen understood that young women encounter both heroes and villains during a country dance. She applied this phenomenon to her novels because her male characters often reveal their true natures on the ballroom floor – a choice that is consistent from Northanger Abbey (Austen’s first novel) to Emma (published just two years before her death).

Northanger Abbey’s Catherine Moreland encounters John Thorpe, one of the novel’s key villains, shortly upon arriving in Bath. Thorpe’s rude demeanor to his mother and sisters initially gives Catherine pause, but he manages to ingratiate himself by engaging Catherine to dance for the upcoming evening. However, Catherine’s “felicity” in the arrangement is remarkably short-lived (NA 39). In the unfolding chapter, Austen uses Thorpe’s behavior on the ballroom floor to establish his character. Thomas Wilson’s 1816 ballroom etiquette guide,Companion to the Ballroom, was adamant that men composed themselves with a gentlemanlike manner. Snapping fingers and loud outbursts of shouting were to be avoided. Slang words and crude language were outlawed (191). For Wilson, these rules were so critical to polite society that they should be held in the same regard as the “laws of nations” (189). John Thorpe breaks several of them. To begin with, he refers to dancing as a “jig” –19th century slang for a dance or a game (NA 46). He also spends a large portion of the evening at the gambling table – a red flag in any Austen novel (41). Thorpe’s biggest crime, however, is leaving his previously engaged partner unattended when the dance begins. To do so, Wilson claims, was a sign of great disrespect, as Catherine feels acutely (192):

To be disgraced in the eye of the world, to wear the appearance of infamy while her heart is all purity, her actions all innocence, and the misconduct of another the true source of her debasement, is one of those circumstances which peculiarly belong to the heroine’s life, and her fortitude under it what particularly dignifies her character. Catherine had fortitude too; she suffered, but no murmur passed her lips (NA 41).

Catherine additionally refers to her situation as a “state of humiliation” and “mortification” (NA 43). Here, Austen juxtaposes the language of Catherine’s virtue (“innocence”, “heroine”, “dignity”) with the language of Thorpe’s misconduct (“disgraced”, “infamy”, “debasement”). In doing so, Austen solidifies Thorpe’s unsavory character. His foul language, his susceptibility to vice, his disregard for country dance etiquette, and, most importantly, his mistreatment of the novel’s heroine, establishes Thorpe as both an unsuitable match and a villain.

Thorpe’s not Austen’s only male antagonist to display his true colors at a country dance, Emma’s Mr. Elton does so as well. Elton, the village vicar, has already revealed himself to be a pompous fortune hunter by the end of volume one. However, he does not reach the height of his villany until the start of volume three when he slights a partnerless Harriet Smith at the ball. Emma assumes that Elton will not want to dance with Harriet due to his lingering discomfort at Emma’s attempted match-making and predicts that he will quickly “escape” to the card room to avoid embarrassing Harriet by not dancing with her (E 256). Instead, Elton remains where he is, ignoring Harriet to speak with a group of older partygoers – even being so bold as to stand right in front of Harriet (E 256). Emma is so appalled by Mr. Elton’s rudeness that she feels her face heat, and her offense is not unwarranted (E 257). Emma is outraged because Elton has overtly broken Regency ballroom etiquette by deliberately leaving a young woman unpartnered when he has the power to remedy the situation. 18th and 19th century dance etiquette guides, such as An Analysis of Country Dancing, outlined a plethora of polite solutions to ensure that everyone is able to dance because, as Wilson instructs, to deprive a young woman the right to dance, is to leave them “totally at a loss” (Wilson ix).

Unfortunately for Harriet, Elton’s slights continue as the chapter progresses. Mrs. Weston, upon seeing that Harriet is sitting alone, tries to encourage Elton to dance with the poor girl. Elton, misunderstanding Mrs. Weston’s remarks, enthusiastically expresses a wish to dance with her. However, when Mrs. Weston clarifies that she wishes for Elton to dance with Harriet and not herself, Elton responds with, “Miss Smith!—oh!—I had not observed.—You are extremely obliging—and if I were not an old married man.—But my dancing days are over, Mrs. Weston. You will excuse me. Anything else I should be most happy to do, at your command—but my dancing days are over” (E 257). Emma is horrified after watching these events unfold and sarcastically praises the “amiable, obliging, gentle Mr. Elton” for his efforts (E 257). Once again, an Austen man unmasks his unpleasant disposition by the way that he comports himself on the ballroom floor. Elton is not as overtly problematic as Thorpe, but he is no less sinister. Thorpe is crude and crass and a braggart and he wears his villainy on his sleeve. Elton, on the other hand, was able to conceal his rotten core with performative humility and sycophantic politeness. However, Elton’s public humiliation of a young woman of unknown parentage and little fortune at the Highbury country dance fully unmasks the vicar to both Emma and the reader.

Fortunately for Auten’s heroines, her villains are not the only men to reveal their characters at a country dance. Her love interests do so as well. From the moment readers meet Henry Tileny, Austen uses ballroom etiquette to establish him as Catherine’s romantic hero. According to any pamphlet or instruction manual on correct country dance behavior, genteel manners and an amicable disposition were necessities. Indeed, the manner in which one composed her- or himself on the ballroom floor was an indicator of one’s “degree of accomplishment in surface manners” and a barometer of one’s inner “courtesy or vulgarity” (Reid Walsh 115). Catherine is impressed by the courteous manner in which Henry invites her to dance (NA 14). He also reveals his jovial nature by goodnaturedly teasing Catherine about her first week in Bath and displays a respect for the female sex by the loving way that he talks about his younger sister (NA 15-16). Most importantly, Henry dances “very well” (NA 57). After dancing together for the second time of the evening, Catherine parts from Henry with an “inclination for continuing the acquaintance” (NA 18).

Austen’s use of country dance etiquette to juxtapose the characterizations of Thorpe and Henry comes to a head at Catherine’s final ball in Bath. Catherine spends the first portion of her final dance “in danger from the pursuit” of Thorpe (NA 59). Fortunately, she manages to “narrowly escape” his clutches by concealing herself with her fan (NA 59). Austen’s diction is telling. Catherine is obsessed with Gothic literature and wishes above all else to be a heroine in an Anne Radcliffe novel. Here, Thorpe’s villainy inspires Catherine to evoke Gothic language as she hides from her would-be captor. Fortunately for Catherine, Henry is as chivalrous and kind as Thorpe is crass and crude. Just as Catherine is beginning to fear that her evening will be destroyed, Henry materializes like a knight in shining armour and asks Catherine to dance. The pair spend the rest of the night flirting and dancing and the evening ends with Catherine making plans to go on a walk with Henry and his sister the following day (NA 63). Henry’s genteel manners and charming personality make him the ideal dance partner which endears him to Catherine and, subsequently, the reader. Finally, Thorpe’s (unsuccessful) attempt to interrupt Henry and Catherine’s dance only adds to Henry’s appeal. Henry is offended by Thorpe’s poor ballroom etiquette and he expresses as much to Catherine when he claims that Thorpe would have “put [him] out of patience” had he continued to divide Catherine’s attention away from Henry because he had “no business” trying to separate a couple in the middle of a set (NA 60). Here, Henry’s understanding of ballroom mores can be contrasted with Thorpe’s rejection of the rules that members of polite society are expected to adhere to. It is no surprise, then, that Catherine’s spirits “danced within her, as she danced in her chair” the entire way home from the ball after spending an evening with such a well-mannered partner (NA 64).

Mr. Knightley is also the hero of a ballroom sequence. Emma is in the midst of processing Elton’s cruelty when Mr. Knightley emerges from the crowd and asks Harriet to dance with him (E 257). Emma is thrilled that Mr. Knightley rescued her friend from humiliation and notes Harriet’s “happy features” with delight (E 257). Mr. Knightley’s dancefloor benevolence is even more impressive when one considers Mr. Knightley’s extensive wealth and influence. A man of his stature choosing to dance with a woman as lowly as Harriet is notable, something that Austen highlights herself when she describes Mr. Knightley’s chivalrous act as creating a “very high sense of distinction" for Harriet (E 257). Austen continues to sing Mr. Knightley’s praises through Harriet later in the book when she recalls how Mr. Knightley's “noble, benevolen[t], and genero[us]” actions took her from “perfect misery to perfect happiness” in a single moment (E 319, 268).

Like with Thorpe and Henry, Austen contrasts Elton and Mr. Knightley’s treatment of Harriet at the country dance to highlight their true characters. To begin with, Emma is pleased to see that Mr. Knightley is an “extremely good” dancer (E 257). His ease, grace, and warmth on the ballroom floor can be juxtaposed with Mr. Elton’s stoic, rigid, and unfeeling behavior. It is also important to note that Mr. Knightely chooses to dance with Harriet specifically because he is attempting to right Mr. Elton’s wrongs. Mr. Knightley is acutely aware of what he refers to as Mr. Elton’s “unpardonable rudeness” and says as much to Emma the moment that the two of them are alone (E 259). He is also aware that Mr. Elton’s misconduct was designed to “wound” not only Harriet, but Emma as well (E 259). Here, Mr. Knightley is referring to the Regency dance etiquette rule stipulating that refusing to dance if you are able is disrespectful to the host (Wilson 190). It is public knowledge that Emma is one of the chief organizers of the ball. As a result, Mr. Elton’s public rejection of Harriet also serves as a public rejection of Emma. Emma also feels Elton’s slight, and she expresses as much to Mr. Knightley. However, Emma’s resentment for Elton is clearly overshadowed by her appreciation for Mr. Knightley’s chivalry because she immediately asks Mr. Knightley to dance the next set with her instead of dwelling on the issue further – an impressive prioritization for a woman as proud as Emma (E 259).

Now that we have established that Jane Austen consistently uses country dance sequences to characterize both her male protagonists and antagonists, we can begin to contemplate why. I will allow one of our heroes, Henry Tilney, to put forth an answer: the country dance is “an emblem of marriage” (NA 60). Austen is always quick to link dancing and courtship in her novels – Pride and Prejudice’s famous “to be fond of dancing was a certain step towards falling in love” comes to mind – and she was correct to do so (PP 7). The term “country dance” derives from the French term contre-danse, so called because partners formed two sets of lines with the women opposite the men (Stovel 4). John Playford’s English Dancing Master, a dancing manual published in several editions between 1651-1725, describes how partners would face one another, dance up and down the lines, separate, dance with a new partner, and then finally return to their original partner at the end of the set (Stovel 3). The face-to-face positioning, the opportunity for unchaperoned conversation, and the ability to choose multiple partners over the course of the same evening transformed the ballroom floor into a precursor for marriage. Even the language of dance itself mimics the language of courtship: “I wish she had been able to dance,” Mrs. Allen reflects to her husband about Catherine, “I wish we could have got a partner for her” (italics mine NA 12). Additionally, phrases such as “engagement” and “offering someone their hand,” which were so common on the ballroom floor, carry an air of matrimony (Stovel 2).

I posit that Jane Austen develops her male heroes and villains during country dance sequences across her early and later works because of the close association between marriage and dancing in the 19th century. Jane Austen wrote novels of manners centered on young women. Every eligible male character that these young women encounter instantly becomes a potential suitor as her heroines navigate the complex conventions of society and courtship. If country dances were the most common space for women to determine which suitors they liked and which suitors they did not, it makes sense that Austen would employ dance sequences to solidify the characters of the male figures that are vying for her heroine’s hands. Men like Thorpe and Elton (with their cruel treatment of women on the ballroom floor and their blatant disregard for country dance etiquette) can be compared to men like Henry Tilney and Mr. Knightley, two gifted dancers who have a respect for both their partners and the institution of country dancing. It is no surprise, then, that Henry and Mr. Knightley’s behavior during the ballroom sequences in their respective novels plays an essential role in their eventual marriage plot.